Cabo Verde History: Decline, Crisis, and the Birth of Creole Identity
The Long Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries in Cabo Verde: Decline, Crisis, and the Birth of Creole Identity (c. 1600 – c. 1879)
The period between the 17th and late 19th centuries represents a dramatic pivot in Cabo Verdean history. It was an era defined by the collapse of the islands' primary source of wealth, devastating natural disasters, and the Portuguese Crown's profound neglect. Yet, this very crisis period was the essential crucible in which a distinct and resilient Cabo Verdean Creole identity was permanently forged. For the modern reader, understanding this convergence of economic ruin, environmental tragedy, and cultural birth is key to grasping the nation's unique character.
The Collapse of the Economic Engine
The initial prosperity of Ribeira Grande, the first tropical European settlement, had rested almost entirely on the lucrative trans-Atlantic slave trade. By the mid-17th century, however, this engine began to fail, leading to an irreversible economic decline.
The primary cause was the shift in Portuguese imperial policy. In 1675, the Crown granted monopoly rights that allowed slave ships to purchase captives directly from the Upper Guinea coast, effectively bypassing Cabo Verde as the central clearing house. Furthermore, the archipelago became increasingly vulnerable to attacks from rival European powers and pirates. The most decisive blow was the French Cassard expedition's sacking of Ribeira Grande in 1712, which destroyed the city and robbed it of its riches. This led to the official move of the capital to the adjacent natural harbor of Praia in 1770, signaling the end of Ribeira Grande's strategic importance and cementing the islands' relegation to a poor backwater.
The Crisis of Drought, Famine, and Emigration
As the economy based on external trade evaporated, the population became dangerously dependent on local agriculture, which proved unsustainable. The islands' location along the Sahel made them susceptible to frequent, severe droughts. From the mid-18th century onward, a catastrophic cycle of famine and mass death began, a crisis exacerbated by deforestation, overgrazing, and, crucially, the indifference of the colonial administration in Lisbon.
Major droughts and subsequent famines struck repeatedly, notably in the 1770s, and throughout the 19th century (for example, 1830–33, 1854–56, and 1863–66). These events resulted in the deaths of over 100,000 people across the two centuries. The official response from Portugal was historically insufficient, offering little relief and often exacerbating the suffering through poor governance.
The only recourse for survival became emigration. A stream of male laborers began to leave, first joining American whalers and later seeking work in places like the United States and São Tomé and Príncipe. This initial exodus laid the groundwork for the future global Cabo Verdean diaspora, with emigration becoming a permanent survival strategy rather than a temporary solution.
The Gradual End of Slavery and a Modest Revival
While the trade in enslaved people waned in the 18th century, the official legal structure of slavery in Cabo Verde only began to unravel in the 19th century. Under pressure from the British, Portugal enacted a series of laws, starting with the prohibition of the slave trade in 1836. However, the full abolition of slavery in the colony was a gradual, legalistic process, reluctantly embraced by local slaveholders, and was only fully enacted in 1878.
The economic vacuum left by the collapse of the slave trade and the failure of commercial crops like sugar was partially filled by a new reliance on the islands' strategic location. Mindelo, on the island of São Vicente, grew rapidly in the mid-19th century, becoming a critical coaling station and resupply point for the new era of steamships crossing the Atlantic. This modest economic revival was isolated, benefitting only certain ports and failing to improve the dire conditions of the vast majority of the population who remained dependent on subsistence agriculture.
The Deepening of Creole Identity and Culture
Paradoxically, the islands' decline and isolation solidified their cultural uniqueness. From the earliest days of Ribeira Grande, the necessary, intense contact between the Portuguese settlers, African slaves, and various other groups created a new social and linguistic reality. Cut off from consistent European input and forced to rely on internal resources, the local Mestiço (Creole) population consolidated its distinct identity.
The Kriolu language (or Cape Verdean Creole), a blend of Portuguese lexicon and West African grammar, matured during this era, moving from a lingua franca into the mother tongue and primary expression of the islands. This was the language of daily life, of the rural peasantry, and of the burgeoning local culture. This Creolization was not just linguistic; it shaped music, customs, and social organization. The lack of direct colonial attention, combined with the shared struggle against famine and neglect, fostered a sense of commonality and shared destiny among the islanders, regardless of their social rank. By the late 19th century, this Creole reality—rooted in the land, defined by the Kriolu language, and hardened by continuous environmental crisis—was the undeniable foundation of the Cabo Verdean nation.